Integrative Therapy Essay

I started my first class of counselling today. I was very nervous and excited at the same time. I was nervous because I had not been in formal education for the past ten years and excited because I was going to do something for myself after 3 years of sitting at home and focus on something other than domestic issues. I arrived to my first class late and that made me more apprehensive. Looking around I noticed that there were people from different age and background. I started the class by telling others about myself and listened to them. I felt like I was in a group therapy, in a way it actually was because we were using our listening skills, which I believe is essential part of counselling. As it happened at the end of the task I was less nervous than I was at the beginning. Our next task was to find a partner and talk about ourselves to each other. We talked about our lives and it was up to us how much to tell our partner and to share it with the rest of the group. Again here, our listening skills were tested. This task also acted as ice breaker where the atmosphere of the class become more relaxed as we listened to each individual’s life and their achievements as well as their aspirations. I realised that most of the people who attended the course were there because of their life experiences propelled them to this course and that they felt they have something to give back as counsellor, or that they may learn some counselling skills to help them with their own lives. As for myself, since studying counselling as part of my degree course 10 years ago, I have wanted to become a counsellor. I always was motivated to help others. My only inability is and has been my lack of confidence. This is not because I don’t have the ability to listen and help others, but just that I am not a confident speaker and my communication skills needs to be enhanced and by doing this course I am hoping to overcome both and be prepared for further qualifications in counselling. During the class in groups we also discussed, what we want from rest of the group and what is required of me. There were some points, such as, Respect, Confidentially, Honesty, Being non- judgmental, etc, that we all agreed on. We ended the class by â€Å"checking out†, where we said how we felt and what we learned, like me, the rest of group was also more relaxed and were looking forward to the rest of the course. I see this course as learning route, where by the end of it I have learned some counselling skills, hopefully I will also overcome my own issues, which might have an impact on my role as a helper.

Orientation Training Essay

Blanchard & Thacker (2010) describe how orientation can be described as the type of activities that an individuals or organization may seem most interested in and can give most attention. Orientation training can be described as training designed for newly hired employees to allow them to understanding the organizations operations. Also, orientation training give new employee’s opportunities to learn polices and procedures for making decision and activities of various units are coordinated. Orientation training can being with the socialization process with new employees and help the employee learn information about the organization and the values of the organization (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010). Orientations can be short or have longer approach dew to the kind of organizations the employees will be working for. The value of orientation training can with the how the learning theory prospective can be based on previous learning. New information can be interpret and understand in the context that is already know. Blanchard & Thacker (2010) show how successful organization can recognize the need for providing new employees with orientation training. They also view how new employees can use the organization and the first entry into the organization and whit will coming next tin the upcoming days in the organizations. The first view of the organization can be a lasting one and can important for organization to have good imaged an impression to chance the effectiveness the organization and new employees (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010). Another value of orientation training can be how employees who attend orientation training can be flexible to accepting the organizations goals and values. Orientations training can be effective with the use of the guidance that is provided to employees regarding manage ment expectations. Also orientations can be effective in reducing anxiety, reducing role ambiguity. In addition reducing turnover, improving job performance, providing high levels of commitment and can show the effective and efficient of the organizations (Blanchard & Thacker, 2010). In conclusion, orientation training is designed for new employees to allow them to understanding the organizations operations. Orientation training gives new employee’s opportunities to learn polices and procedures for making decision in the new organizations. Orientations training can be effective with the use of the guidance that it helps to provide to new employees regarding management expectations. References: Blanchard, N. P., & Thacker, J. (2010). Effective Training, System, Strategies and Practices (Custom 4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

My motivation Essay

My motivation to attend a Historically Black College or University has a lot to do with black history but not for the most common reasons. For me to be able to properly express my sentiments in making this selection, I would like to begin by speaking of my experience as a black woman and the experience of being black in America. This, I feel, is the only way that I can clearly explain my decision to attend a Historically Black College or University. In the very beginning of this nation’s history, Americans were under the power of England’s monarchy. The Americans were able to overthrow the shackles of bondage and created a Constitution that declares its steadfast belief in the ideals of freedom, equality and the pursuit of happiness. But immediately after the Declaration of Independence and even after the Constitution was signed and accepted by leaders of the new government, not every American citizen is treated fairly. This led to the development of several plans that were aimed at making things equal. Among which, affirmative action was praised and pilloried as the answer to racial inequality. First introduced by President Kennedy in 1961, â€Å"Affirmative action† was designed as a method of reducing the discrimination that had remained despite the civil rights laws and constitutional guarantees. It was a method that was put in place as a â€Å"Temporary Measure to Level the Playing Field† through the offering of the same opportunities to all Americans. While the â€Å"Affirmative Action† plan was intended to have good effects, it resulted in exposing the flaws in the system as â€Å"Reverse Racism† began to emerge and the â€Å"Bakke† case came about where a white male was rejected two years in a row in favor of admitting other minorities through a quota system. This â€Å"Reverse Racism† and other flaws led to a mounting anger against â€Å"Affirmative Action† and soon it became a Zero Sum Game as jobs and opportunities became open to minorities but not to whites. During this period, â€Å"Preferential treatment† and â€Å"quotas† became expressions of contempt. This is where my drive to apply at this Historically Black College or University comes from because I am a firm believer in the progress that has been made to address this situation. The recent victory of Barack Obama in the United States Presidential Election of 2008 is one of the biggest issues among many other big events that have occurred in America this year. This year’s election was even more controversial because of the racial issue, which they barely, if at all, had in previous elections. During the course of the campaigns, other candidates may have mentioned the racial difficulties in their speech or public pledge, but no candidate ever represented him-self as a minority. The United States, I am proud to admit, has begun the long process of change. The idea of having a Black President was unthinkable and unimaginable ten years ago. Yet, it must be pointed out that it was only achievable because America is blended by multi-ethnicity, which means America is like a melting pot, where all different races and cultures are mixed in one particular land, often called â€Å"a country of immigrants†. Many other countries aside from than the United States were and still likely to deny minorities as their presidents. This recent success is a clear sign that Obama’s successful run for president has broken through the ‘last racial barrier’. America no longer has to be rudely awakened by the Civil Rights Movement to realize that there is still much work to be done with regards to racism in this country. When Martin Luther King, Jr. died, the nation was ready for a major change. Ending segregation in the South and improving the status of the Negro race is now the correct thing to do. The victory of Barack Obama sends a message of change that resounds with all the voters; it speaks of change and opportunity for all those who had none and all those who have none. It is this same message of change that has prompted me to embrace my country for taking steps in initiating this change. These Historically Black Colleges and Universities have been trying to change this trend since their inception and I feel that it is my duty to be a part of that proud history and continue the message of change by pushing back the barriers. As the United States continues to grow in population size, the impact that the minorities have on the future of America will no longer be a minor one, to say the least. Without any effective action, these minorities will not be able to take advantage of the opportunities that America has to offer. Affirmative action was supposed to be the future of a great America. An America as envisioned by the forefathers who declared that no person shall be denied the right to life, liberty or property just on the basis of the color of his skin. Any effective action, such as taking an active role by applying to Historically Black Colleges and Universities, with regard to improving society should not be about segregating people or creating a different class. It should instead focus on creating opportunities for those who have none and building relationships that will ensure that America can remains as the great country that it has been and is for ages to come. It is said that the future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams. I am one of those individuals who firmly believe in my dreams and am not afraid to work hard to attain them. I know that I have a long road to travel but I am neither daunted nor intimidated by this because I know that I can succeed. I am also confident in the fact that with the experiences that I can gain from this university there is so much more that I can accomplish in life and I look forward to the day that this dream becomes a reality.

Process writing <How to Prepare for going abroad> Essay

Process writing - Essay Example s possible because when one compares the same with the old days, various transportation mechanisms were not there which have now been developed such as cars, aircrafts and vessels. Besides, there’s a saying ‘the world is one.’ So, in this sense, going to another place has become more convenient than ever. Thus, there are a lot more chances to travel or to go on a business. However, we do not go to new places without preparation. Before leaving, preparation is the most important thing to do. Without it, the travel or the business would be ruined. There are a few things to be prepared beforehand. First is to gather up the information about the destination, second is to make reservation, third is to pack and then all good to go. Initially, looking up for the destination is a must and the most basic thing to do before one leaves. There is a Korean saying ‘you know it more, you see it more’. This means if you are knowledgeable about something there are more chances to appreciate what you are seeing and you get to know deeper about it. In order to gather information about the destination, you can either look up on the internet or the tour guide book. Then, what you need to do is to choose the exact destination. Even for the smaller areas it gets different from one another. For instance, the weather in Seoul and Gyoungi is different even though they are close to each other. Moreover, you have to know about the people there. People are all different with one another but usually people can be different due to where they live. For example, Americans seem to be more open-minded than people in other cultures but at the same time Americans tend to be more conservative too. On the other hand, people in British are conservative yet more open-minded. So, knowing how the people are in the area is important to appreciate it. In the end, it is always appropriate to understand that going abroad could both be risky and beneficial in the long run. Since it involves

Ethical Decision for business case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ethical Decision for business case - Essay Example Whilst it is the case that there is a degree of religious freedom in China, all events must be at a state sanctioned religious venue and have the approval of the government. As Gao had no such approval from the government he was arrested and imprisoned for over a month. Upon his release, Gao returned to work however he only had a note from the Chinese police stating that they had held him for three days and had subsequently been released without trial. The quandary lies in the fact that the Chinese partner in the joint venture wanted Gao fired however it is the case that whilst Gao may have violated Chinese religious laws three provisions in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights indicate that everyone has a right to freedom of thought & religion, wither alone or in community with others. Moreover the charter also indicates that all people have the freedom of opinion & expression and that everyone has the right to peaceful assembly and association. As such moralisti cally, Gao was not in violation of any of the protocols as enforced by the Chinese government. The case is further complicated insofar as it is the case that if the American firm were to support Gao it is likely that they will loose a very close ally in the Chinese market and the principle of relationship management in China (Guanxi) is crucial to having a commercial success in the nation. A number of moral complications are presented in this case. Firstly there is the issue of maximizing shareholder value vs. the moral obligation the company has to protecting their employees. If theoretically, Chrysler were to refuse to fire Gao it is likely that they would loose millions of dollars in capital and ultimately may fail in the Chinese market. If Chrysler were to ally with their Chinese partners and fire Gao, it is likely that they would foster a harmonious relationship with the Chinese Communist party as well as their business partners however they would

Catalysis and catalysts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Catalysis and catalysts - Essay Example With this introduction, this essay will demonstrate how catalysts speed up reactions, explain how they work by using the enthalpy reaction profiles, and demonstrate the difference between the heterogeneous and homogenous catalysts and showing examples (Bruice, 2007). A reaction can be sped up by a catalyst since they offer an optional route for the reactions to happen. They lessen the necessary reaction energy for the reactants to create products, therefore, atoms; at any given time will have the necessary energy for activation in order for the products to form. This principle is based on the collision particle theory (Gates, 1992) Reactant molecules interaction with catalysts to provide other routes for the response that connects a lower activation as compared to that of the non-catalyzed reactions. Many of the molecules that interact have energies that are bigger as compared to the lower enthalpy activation. Many of the collisions therefore end in a successful reaction and the conversion rates of reactant to product are enhanced and this demonstrates how catalysts function through enthalpy profiles (McNaught and Wilkinson, 1997) The two main groups of catalysts are homogeneous and heterogeneous. The catalyst in a heterogeneous reaction is in a diverse state as compared to the reactant. Catalyst in a homogeneous reaction is in a similar state as the reactant(Bell, 1973). This is pointless, in practice, because ethane that is extremely useful is being converted to ethane that is relatively useless. The same reaction however will occur with any compound having a double bond of carbon-carbon. In the vegetable oils hydrogenation one of the vital industrial applications is in its use in making margarine that also entails carbon-carbon double bond reaction in the vegetable oil with a nickel catalyst having a hydrogen presence. Hydrogen is created as before a link with the carbon, and that eventually also ends up breaking free. On the nickel’s surface

Discussion Forum #7 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Discussion Forum #7 - Essay Example The first changes yield the most warming but subsequently produce lesser warming. Coupling the increased carbon dioxide emissions and the lesser and lesser warming resulting from more and more carbon dioxide emissions, it would be reasonable to consider the future warming projections as a straight line (Michaels, 2009). Therefore, once climate warming by humans starts, it occurs at a constant rate. Indeed, BBC (2013) reports on data from balloon radiosondes and satellite that support this finding. According to these records, since 1998, there has been no discernible warming. Michaels further argues that the observed rates of warming are below the average of climate models and that the assumptions by pro-global warming activists could not be true. Climate models postulate a greater increase in the degree of warming with a rise in the concentration of greenhouse gases than experienced at the surface (Michaels, 2010). Supportive evidence from BBC (2013) indicates that these models have not been able to model all the involved processes even after many years of development. Water vapor distribution, influence of clouds and plants’ response to changes in water supply are among some of these models not captured. Thus, the models are unreliable. Michaels (2009) also observes that contrary to expectations, the carbon dioxide greenhouse warming effect at Antarctic has exhibited just a slight temperature increase since the measurements in the 1950s and 1960s. In fact, the International Geophysical Year observed that the Antarctic temperatures exhibited a warming trend from 1957 to mid-1960s, with subsequent studies thereafter indicating cooling or no change. This erroneous data has been supported by BBC (2013) and Pittock (2009) who observe that the atmosphere does not behave as predicted by the models. The predictions of computer models

Reincarnation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Reincarnation - Essay Example Reincarnation appears to have caught the thoughts of many and the notion receives frequent mentions in popular books, feature films and popular music.( Stevenson, 37) Discussion Written by Doctor Jim B. Tucker the book ‘Life before life’ is a scientific analysis of kids’ memories of former lives. The book brings forth an overview of over forty years of reincarnation investigation which was done at the â€Å"University of Virginia division of personality studies†. in addition the book also deliberates over birth defects and birthmarks that look like those of a departed person who is recognized in a child. Doctor Jim is an apprentice of the late Doctor Ian Stevenson who back in the 1960’s started printing case studies of kids who remembered alleged previous life memoirs. From then on Dr. Tucker, Dr. Stevenson and their associates have put together an incomparable number of study cases in which young kids usually between age 2 and 8 spontaneously analyz ed experiences and memoirs of a post presence. The kids often delivered an extensive amount of evidence which included places and specific names from an alleged past life, birthmarks and facts of certain events from that life to back up the idea that a part of their awareness have somehow remained intact and have been passed on from a previous life to another. The cases became more captivating when a certain personality of a supposed past incarnation is successfully discovered normally by the child, family or neighbors. Dr. Tucker brings forth his findings clearly and systematically all the way through the book, for example in a specific chapter he would begin by summarizing a specific sequence of kid s’ cases with a similar character, e.g. occurrence of a birthmark on the kid that resemble to injuries of the kids’ previous character or even existence of printed records describing a kids reports that are dated earlier than the kids’ supposed previous character i s recognized after thoroughly outlining the cases, he goes further to discuss the possible substitute explanations to reincarnation for those cases (ordinary explanations which include faulty memory, fraud, coincidence or paranormal explanation e.g. possession) and then he further goes to conclude if reincarnation offers the most convincing explanation for each individual case. He takes the reader on a universal voyage into regions of the globe with hugely differing views on reincarnation, into homes infiltrated by widely-differing socio-economic conditions and into the lives of kids with very diverse stories. Nevertheless, his assumption that reincarnation as he describes is the most conceivable explanation for most of precise cases and definitely in the frame of cases as a whole, remains unwavering all through the book. Of tuckers In most of Doctor Tuckers cases, the amount of material supposedly recalled by the kid in question is quite amazing. in one certain case, Doctor Tucker tells of a kid from whom even before he was three years old began telling her life as a vendor of incense in a community approximately a hundred and forty five miles away. For 4 years she stated specific details about the life she had led as this gentleman including the exact type of incense he had sold (a type unavailable to and somewhat unknown in the township where that girl lived), the exact location where he lived, the identity of his mother, names of his wife and the

Discuss the benefits to a retailer of operating multiple formats Essay

Discuss the benefits to a retailer of operating multiple formats. Illustrate your answer with three examples from the UK retail - Essay Example Sainsbury’s, for example, has introduced a credit card that enables a customer to earn loyalty points whenever they shop at the supermarket. Tesco, on the other hand, is working on an application on Facebook, which will enable customers to gain double Club Card points by sharing or liking the facts about the products they buy from the supermarket. The Blackberry Company, on the other hand, uses TV and Billboards to launch new products. It also uses sales promotions to obtain advance payments in the short term sales (Chadwick, Doherty, Anastasakis, 2006). The Benefits of Using Multiple Formats to a Retailer The use of multiple formats has proved to be of immense importance to retailers because multiple formats normally offer unique opportunities for retailers to use services such as geo-location to market their products. This is applicable when using formats like social media. Social media, such as Facebook and Twitter, used by Tesco tend to be hyper social platforms (Varley, 2 005). Multiple formats also tend to benefit organizations in that; some of the formats used by retailers tend to influence the consumers. For example, in that case of Sainsbury’s, where a consumer uses their credit card to shop, and eventually earns points. The use of advertisements by companies such as Tesco is also a format that can be used by a retailer to attract more customers and obtain more profits. For instance, Tesco has normally used flyers and websites to increase awareness among customers in the UK (Varley, 2005). Theory of Social Media as a multiple format used by retailers Berman and Evans (2004) discuss ways in which social media assists as a multiple format when it comes to skills that help retail marketing. Ellis-Chadwick, Doherty and Anastasakis (2006) reveal that social media helps its users view themselves in other ways by using their fresh data and presenting it in a manner that is planned. Using social media leads to increased consumer engagement and may result in quick sales in case a company has offers for consumers at a given time. Using such social media, retailers are in a position to create brand awareness, therefore, attracting more customers. The use of social media results in increased product awareness among consumers. Provision of consumers with information, such as price of products and location of the stores, where such products can be found, increases sales for the retailers (Healey and Baker, 1997). Porter’s five forces theory Porter’s five forces theory is a format that helps retailers to understand their positions in the competitive market. The retailers can normally use competition to evaluate their weaknesses. It enhances retailers with the ability to evaluate whether the goods and services offered are profitable. Retailers may use this format to evaluate their buyer power, the capabilities of their competitors, their supplier power, the threats accompanied by substitution, and the threats they may face in case they make a new entry into the market (Porter, 2008). An examination of the Mintel report reveals that; if a company manages to analyze the other companies in the market, the company can be in a position to track its competitors, and this leads to the identity

Assignment 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

2 - Assignment Example In this regard, the moral dilemma makes many businesses stagnate when it comes to development and intended expansion (Render et al., 2011). However, for Fran’s Fries the challenge posed is the need to hire additional pair of hands or not having to hire any. This is because the business has not yet established its customer capacity hence creating the problem. In this regard, this report will zone in on the steps that Fran’s Fries should take in ascertaining whether to hire the two nieces considering that it is a new eatery. This shall be through the use of the quality control theory and the statistical control process. Total quality management In a business setting, quality service is the lasting gesture that clients experience within the execution of service in a business. It is the trait that attracts and sustains a business’ client base that makes it stand out from its competitors. In essence, quality is the degree to which customer satisfaction becomes the mot ivating factor rather the profits that a business may achieve. Subsequently, total quality management becomes an integral part of business operations that entail details the entire chain from the supplier right to the consumer. Ideally, the management of quality focuses entirely on the business’ commitment in ensuring that the products and the services rolled out exceed consumer perception (603). This commitment runs across the whole business or company hence not specified to one department of the organization. Therefore, it is essential for any business set up to ascertain ways in which it may offer quality services and products to its customers. For Fran’s case, it would be beneficial to hire the nieces in order to minimize the loss of customers because of having to stand in a queue for long before accessing her products. This means that her products are of quality because of the high demand associated to the product. However, establishing that she has low clientele would mean that she would not have to hire her nieces despite the fact that she would want to help them out by employing them. On the other hand, having a low number of customers would also mean that she would have to improve on the quality of her products so as to attract more customers. Statistical process control Ideally, the achievement of quality attributes to the standard set either by the organization offering products or services or an externally related overall governing organization. In this regard, the statistical process helps in the establishing of standards in order to measure, change, and monitor challenges facing a business. The effective achievement of this process would be during the initial stages of production. For instance, this process may apply for Fran’s Fries when preparing the food for sale to its display. This helps in making correct changes to the products on offer to ensure that they provide quality. It involves the taking of samples produced and ascertaining whether they meet to up to the required set standards. Further, the process invokes the use of control charts that are in the form of graphs that portray the highest and the lowest levels intended for the control process. Their application involves the application of prior data that portray initial performance. In Fran’s case, the older niece past work performance may be useful in establishing whether she is a suitable

Importance of Being Earnest Essay Example for Free

Importance of Being Earnest Essay The Importance of Being Earnest is a serious comedy about trivial matters The Importance of being Earnest is a play that satirizes the Victorian upper classes. In the play, Oscar Wide makes fun of the upper class in many ways. Most commonly, Wilde does this by using comic irony, humor, and witty statements. However, if we look deeper into the text, a lot of the trivial matters characters discuss have a serious side to them. Wilde uses these matters to satirize the Victorian upper even more. The seriousness of death is taken light-heartedly in the play. Rather than associating death with sadness and suffering and grief Jack and Algy portray death as a method of conveniently eliminating unwanted people, whether imaginary or not. When Algy confesses that Bunbury is â€Å"Quite Exploded† something comical arises however, his amusing phrase also has some serious implications. Although at first the fact that Bunbury has exploded may be hilarious, it is also shocking to some of the characters in the play, as Bunbury was â€Å"supposed† to be very close to Algy. Furthermore, Algy talks about his death so lightly, that it makes it seem as if Algy couldn’t care less about losing a close friend. The worst part about the way Algy communicates Bunbury’s death, is that he never admits that Bunbury never existed and lies to all the characters who felt truly sorry for Bunbury. Jack also tells Algy, If Gwendolen accepts me, I am going to kill my brother because Cecily is a little too much interested in him. Another trivial moment is when Jack admits to smoking in front of Lady Bracknell. Lady Bracknell’s replies with: â€Å"Every man should have an occupation of some kind†. Although the audience may laugh at this moment, Wilde shows how the Victorian upper class had absolutely no work to do – and therefore categorized smoking as an occupation. Cucumber sandwiches also are also used to criticize the British upper classes. â€Å"No cucumber sandwiches! † shows the absurdness of the upper classes. The scene and dialog is certainly comical, however, it shows how dramatic and over- the –top the British upper class was. Moreover, in the Victorian Era, The Importance of Being Earnest was watched by middle classes as well was the upper class; the scene must have told the Middle classes a lot about the upper class, especially when they were dramatizing trivial matters like not having cucumber sandwiches. The Name â€Å"Earnest† is also very important in the play, as this too is an example of triviality and seriousness. Gwenolden states that her â€Å"ideal has always been to love some one of the name of Ernest†. Cecily says she pities married woman whose husband is not called Ernest. The name Earnest in itself is a very trivial thing. Although the name Earnest â€Å"inspires utter confidence† Wilde makes fun of the fact that both Jack and Algy are very unhonest men. A name does not define the persons personality or values, however the triviality of the name Ernest is taken out of proportions and treated very seriously in the play. In conclusion, Wilde satirizes the Victorian upper class by making fun of their trivial matters that they treat seriously. Wilde almost swaps seriousness and triviality around so that serious issues are treated trivially and trivial issues are treated seriously. Although back in 19th Century the Victorian classes may have found the play hilarious, today we have a broader view and are able to understand Wilde’s message about the Victorian upper classes more. In fact, Wilde originally subtitled The Importance of Being Earnest â€Å"A Serious Comedy for Trivial People† but changed that to â€Å"A Trivial Comedy for Serious People†. – Isn’t that the same thing though?

On Common Ground, the Power of Professional Learning Communities Essay Example for Free

On Common Ground, the Power of Professional Learning Communities Essay The learning system by which educators and students work in is plagued with sometimes tedious, repetitive and oftentimes illogical steps that learning is hampered more than it is encouraged. The book On Common Ground, the Power of Professional Learning Communities seeks to challenge the very core of the learning system that most of schools practice. The book has collated various examples of what it makes to be able to produce education that is considered â€Å"high-level†. (DuFour, 2005) This particular book requires that the different schools and individuals to challenge their preconceived notions and incorporate different types of practices that have been observed by the authors in different types of schools and universities. By far, this is one of the most provocative pieces of work regarding the level of education that is being offered to people right now. More than anything, the book spurs people, especially the educators to press on in improving themselves as well as improving the quality of education and the quality of students that leave the universities and different schools. More than anything, the book is a testament to how a collaborative effort beautifully crafts a sort of â€Å"manual† for improved student performance. (Dufour, 2005) If you are an educator, the different steps and assertions that the authors have discussed in the book are definitely worth losing sleep over as the strategies, lessons and improvements that the authors have agreed upon are all valid, and solid in their assumptions. Should there be any particular conclusion that can be drawn from this book, it is the fact that if teachers come together in a structured and orderly manner, this essentially contributes to the betterment of the student in the area of learning and professional drive. (Dufour, 2005) Ultimately, one should look into this in order to challenge the status quo and begin a new one marked by collaboration and unity in purpose.

How And When Children Acquire Language English Language Essay

How And When Children Acquire Language English Language Essay Introduction: The question to consider is how children acquire language and at which stage they could improve their speaking and listening skills. In particular, syntax and vocabulary are the main concern of the language acquisition domain. The task of psycholinguistics is to discover the relationship between language and the human mind (Field: 2003). Many theories, therefore, have emerged in exploring this relationship, which seek to explain the way in which children understand and acquire language. Over the last five decades these theories have offered various ideas and interpretations of the relationship. For example, in Behaviourist theory, which is associated to skinners research into language, language acquisition is considered a collection of habits. It is thought that children learn how to form correct utterances through positive reinforcement from the people around them (Patten and Benati: 2010). Cognitive theory, which is associated with Piaget, is considered a way of discovering how ind ividuals create and use language in their social context (ibid, p71). Interaction theory, related to Bruner, holds that language comes from the interaction between children and their environment (ibid, p99). There are, however, two theories in the relevant acquisition literature which oppose one another and provoke countless debates: Chomskys theory and Tomasellos theory. In Chomskys theory, children biologically possess an innate ability to acquire their language. This ability is mainly specific to language. Whereas, in Tomasellos theory language is acquired through language use by means of social skills, such as, joint attention and general learning mechanisms (Behrene: 2009). This paper seeks to explore these two theories in order to contrast them. The first and second parts of the paper present an overview of the main ideas in the two theories. The third part focuses on their different aspects, including the: poverty of stimulus argument, linguistic creativity, modularity and language specific domain versus domain- general learning mechanisms. The fourth and final part, discusses some weak points in the two theories. Overview of Chomskys (Innatist) theory: In language acquisition domain, Chomskys theory is called an innatist theory, because he proposed that children biologically possess suitable abstract knowledge for the task of first language learning .This abstract knowledge shapes the linguistic system which they learn. In fact, through this innate knowledge children can discover the rules of their language system and reduce hypothesis formation and guessing. (Patten and Benati: 2010). Chomskys main argument is that all human beings are born with an innate knowledge which is particularly designed for language acquisition (ibid). This argument is indeed, opposed to the one that language is a result of the interaction between human beings and the environment or item-usage learning (e.g. Skinner, 1957; Tomasello, 2003). Furthermore, The term Language Acquisition Device (LAD) was coined by Chomsky in this context to refer to such innate knowledge or the little black box (Patten and Benati: 2010).The (LAD) comprises the universal princi ples of all languages, by which children can be kept on track and not confused by all the complex rules of particular languages. When this (LAD) is activated, the child can discover the structure of the language s/he is to learn by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical relationships to the structures of the special language in the environment (Lightbown and Spada: 1999). However, since the 1960s, instead of (LAD) universal grammar hypothesis (UG) was introduced by Chomsky. It was given much concern by him instead of, the (LAD), because, in Chomskys view this hypothesis means that there is an innate knowledge source which governs the shape of natural language (Patten and Benati: 2010). It should be noted that the first appearance of Chomskys theory was in 1959 in his critical review of Skinners book Verbal Behavior in 1957. Chomsky in his review pointed out many shortcomings in applying Skinners theories to language acquisition. For example, Skinners experiment using rat boxes is not relevant to language because the behaviour of rats is unlike human behaviour. As a result, Skinner has a mistaken understanding of the nature of language. Furthermore, the environment considered solely as learning mechanism can not be the basis of language acquisition and therefore, mans ability to acquire language must be innate (Aitchison, 2007). Overview of Tomasellos theory (usage-based theory): The account of language acquisition provided by Tomasello comes under the umbrella of usage-based theories. Recently, a new view of language and human linguistic competence has emerged (Tomasello: 2003). This view comes from a set of theories usually called cognitive-functional linguistics, and also called usage -based linguistics in order to emphasize their main ideas that language structure is produced or appears from language use (e.g. Langacker, 1987a ; Croft, 1991; Tomasello, 1995, 2003). It is note worthy that this view stands in direct opposition to Chomskys innatist theory. Because, Tomasello in his theory is mainly concerned with the question of how children get from here to there from the constructions of infant level speech to the abstract constructions of adult thought through one set of processes of acquisition (Tomasello: 2003:3). In Tomasellos theory it is impossible that humans can have been born with a specific collection of communicative behaviours only for language . This collection more probably learned by children during their years from the linguistic conventions used around them. They must possess flexibility in order to learn both the different words and the suitable expressions of each language and the different types of abstract constructional pattern which historically these languages have grammaticized (ibid). Tomasello emphasizes, however, four points in his theory: First, the innate skills which people have are not specific to language but can be used as means for language learning. Second, theory of mind is central to symbol use, because humans can understand symbols while nonhuman do not possess this ability, because they use signal system. Thirdly, word-learning skills include: joint attention, which means the ability that children possess in their first year old whereby they can understand other people as intentional agents and interact socially through an object to which both pay attention; children note this attention to both it and themselves; Intention reading, means the ability to understand the social world around them through imitating adult acts; the construction-learning skills encompassing: analogy and pattern-finding. The latter means the distributional analysis based on statistical information in the primary linguistic data and the ability to form perceptual and conceptual figures of similar objects or situations (Tomasello: 2003). The differences between the two theories: It is noteworthy that the accounts provided by Chomsky and Tomasello comprise many opposed aspects, of which the main ones are as follows: 3.1. Poverty of stimulus argument: The basic argument of the nativist theory is based on Chomskys assumption of the poverty of stimulus (1965).This assumption means that the data provided by the input to which people exposed are not rich enough to account for language acquisition (Patten and Benati:2010). In other words, it means that the language to which children are exposed as their input or the primary linguistic data is solely a set of individual utterances yielding some abstract principles of grammar which seem ambiguous for language acquisition .The best solution he can provide is the universal grammar hypothesis (UG), which means that all humans are born with an innate universal language containing a number of abstract principles which can lead the acquisition process (Tomasello: 2003). Despite the fame of the poverty of stimulus argument in the language acquisition domain and childrens language research, it has certain, if we contrast it with the account provided by Tomasellos usage-based theory. We find that the research into the developmental psychology of language acquisition has provided many arguments which support the richness of stimulus in usage-based theories (e.g Clark2003, Tomasello 2003). In fact, the significance of social pragmatic interaction in language acquisition is evidenced by extensive findings in this domain (Tomasello: 2003). To put it more simple, Tomasello in his theory emphasizes that: There is no poverty of the stimulus when a structured inventory of construction is the adult endpoint (Tomasello: 2003:7). He notes that the hypothesis of an innate universal grammar has two major problems, namely, first, the linking problem and the problem of continuity. The first problem is how children can connect their abstract universal grammar with the particular language which they learn. The second problem deals with the developmental changes in childrens language, for example, how people can understand childrens language during their developmental change if we accept that universal grammar is always the same. It, therefore, seems useful to provide a description or explanation of child language acquisition which ignores any hypothesis of universal grammar which creates these problems (Tomasello: 2003). Accordingly, it is important to note that Chomsky and Tomasello are opposed on the argument of the poverty of stimulus. Tomasellos view, however, seems stronger, because nativists provide no support for their claims. As Pullum and Scholz (2002:47) point out, the poverty of stimulus argument still a waits even a single good supporting example. Moreover, Akhtar (2004) seems to agree with this criticism, in that she indicates that this argument was the basis for a number of nativist claims, yet indeed lack supporting empirical evidences. 3.2. Language is creative: Another difference between Chomsky and Tomasello is the formers belief that language is creative. From Chomsky perspective, creativity in language has three- fold support. First, people possess the ability to understand and produce strange sentences which they have never before heard or spoken (Aitchison: 2007). Second, the creative use of language is free from the external and internal affects of the stimulus control (Chomsky: 1968). Third, the way in which people use the language considered to be coherent and appropriate to the situation (Hegde: 1980). By the way of contrast, we can see that Tomasello does not ignore creativity in language, but he has little concern for it. According to him, it results from the attempt of humans to create categories in their own language (Tomasello: 1995). Chomsky asserts that the creativity in language is something which can not be acquired solely through environmental learning methods (Aitchison: 2007). Tomasello contrastingly asserts that, during a period of time, children obtain the communicative conventions are obtained step by step from the people around them. For example, their social cognitive skills and developing cognition are utilised to internalise these conventions. Childrens basic abilities are used to learn their first words. They create concepts so as to understand adult speech and then to produce suitable new words in their communicative contexts (Tomasello: 1995). It is thought, however, from the contrast between the two views that Chomskys view about the creativity of language has some limitations. For one thing, nativists assert that every utterance we hear and say is completely novel and accepted. This assertion seems to be wrong. The reason is that to accept it we would need to assume that each word or sentence has a separate existence. Moreover, we have to assume that our past language experience is sufficient to provide a clear understanding of the present utterances. But, if these assumptions are accepted, the result will be that human communicative behaviour has no continuity (Hegde: 1980). The second point, on the creativity of language free from the control of stimulus, seems to be weak, because, as discussed above in section (3.1) no evidence has been offered in its support. Furthermore, with regard to the third point, in Chomskys view the way that people use language is coherent and appropriate to the situation. It could be argued that this point is somewhat vague, since Chomsky admits that he can give no clear meaning to the terms appropriateness and coherent in this context (ibid). However, he stresses that the creative aspect of language is common. Humans constantly create novel utterances and many who lack this ability might be brain damaged (Aitchison: 2007). This view would be more popular if it took into account the effect of environmental learning methods in producing our utterances, since the one question that needs to be asked here is, how humans can produce them without communication with their input. 3.3. Modularity: In the areas of linguistics and philosophy of mind, the idea of modularity has raised a great deal of concern (Garfield: 1987). There seems to be another difference between Chomsky and Tomasello, about the modularity of mind in language acquisition. To illustrate, the definition of modularity according to Crystal (1998: 246) is: A term used in recent discussion of language in two slightly different ways. On the one hand, it is proposed, especially in J. A. Fodors The Modularity of Mind, that the mind is modular in the sense that it consists of a number of different systems ( modules) each has its own distinctive properties , such as the language system and the vision system. On the other hand, it is suggested, especially in government-binding theory that language system itself is modular in the sense that it consists of a number of different subsystems which interact in specific ways. The concept of modularity is that the brain is divided into separate parts, an idea to which Chomsky gives much attention (1965).He identifies the language area as a separate faculty of mind, in that language is autonomous in the mind and a separate module in the brain (Aitchison: 2007). Furthermore, he goes on to argue that the human mind is, like other complex biological systems, modular in its internal formation (Chomsky: 1984). The main idea of modularity, according to him, is that the modularity of syntax means that the structures of syntax are not the same as the structures exist in other cognitive (Chomsky: 1968 cited in Tomasello: 1995). By the way of contrast, we can see that Tomasello does not agree that language is a separated module in the brain, because, by his reasoning, in order to have a perfect grammatical theory the syntactic abilities should be combined into cognition and not like an autonomous sub-system (Parisse: 2005). To sum up, Chomskys view is a modular view in which there are different sub-parts in the mind each one possessing special characteristics. Tomasello, however, take the non-modular view that there are general principles employed in all cognitive domains which control the mind (Archibald: 1993). However, to return to the account of modularity provided by Chomsky, one of the difficulties with this account is the claim that syntactic structures are not like the structures which exist in other cognitive domains. This seems to be wrong, because it gives the idea that the syntax module is innate, yet if we give the example of the game of chess, we find that it possesses a number of unique structures, such as, the images of a knight fork or queen-a side attack- in human cognition. But there is no need to presume that this uniqueness chess- playing form needs an innate mental form (Bates et al. 1991). Moreover, the structures of cognitive thought which adults utilise in order to play the game of chess come through a process in which people employ general cognitive processes to face their problems in their social interaction which they may have had in learning to play a constructed game (Tomasello:1995). Hence, it is thought that Chomskys view seems to be weak because it is difficult to specify which part of the brain is responsible for language. As Bates asserts, it still far from knowing perfectly which parts of the brain are responsible for language (Bates in press, cited in, Tomasello 1995). 3.4. Language- specific versus domain- general learning mechanisms: Another point of difference between Chomsky and Tomasello concerns the way in which children acquire language. is another different point between Chomsky and Tomasello. The difference lies in the contention over whether language should be a specific domain or a domain general learning mechanism. A specific domain in this context means a domain specific to language, whilst, domain general refers to learning mechanisms which are not specific to language, yet applied generally. From Chomskys perspective, since, human beings are able to learn language and animals are not, this ability is considered genetically inherited (Aitchison: 2007). Nativist theory, in fact, hypothesises that children are born with universal grammar (UG), a set of innate principles and parameters. This possession helps children to learn language without making errors as they learn (Conroy and Thornton: 2005). Therefore, this assumes that children possess a pre- existing domain- specific innate form which specifies the form of their language knowledge. Moreover, in language learning in particular, syntax children obtain ability without exposure to adequate stimulus (Chomsky; 1986, Pinker; 1994). However, Tomasello believes that it is false to suppose that children have genetically endowed grammar (Tomasello: 2003). To his mind, children in order to learn their language employ item-based learning integrated with some general learning mechanisms that are used in other cognitive domains , such as, analogy (Conroy and Thornton: 2005). Moreover, in Tomasellos view the properties of language structure come from joint attention figures and not from innate language specific mechanisms (Segalowitz: 2001). As a result, Tomasello significantly did not ignore language universals; however, to him they not universals of form or a special type of syntax or linguistic symbols but are instead, the universals of human communication and cognition. For example, human beings use language in similar social contexts in order to provide solutions in language for communicative tasks, such as, describing specific entities (Tomasello: 2003). Consequently, Chomskys view that language has a specific-do main is weak , because languages differ in their grammatical relations, of subject and object, for example, Acehnese, an Indonesian language, and Tagalog, a Philippine language, do not possess these grammatical relations ( Tomasello:1995). 4. Some weakness in both theories: Tomasello, then, introduced a new model of usage-based theories in language acquisition in which he paid attention to a main set of skills, namely, intention reading, joint attention and pattern-finding skills. These skills are general skills utilised also in other types of cognition and not in language alone. Furthermore, although they are innate, they are not like the universal grammar (UG) invented by Chomsky, because they are not specific to language (Tomasello, 2003). But Tomasellos account seems to entail some limitations. It is thought that he does not provide a clear explanation for the fact that these skills are sufficient for language acquisition. As Wilson (2006:138) points out: Tomasellos central claim is that joint attention and intention reading are foundational and prerequisite for language acquisition. It does seems reasonable to assume that they are necessary for language development, but the big question is, are they sufficient? Can they entirely account for all of the complexities of language à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ from parsing speech stream to the emergence of complex grammatical structures? Hollich et al. (2000), on the other hand, seems to agree with this criticism, because they assert that Tomasellos theory, which is one of the social constructivist theories, does not possess a complete or sufficient explanation for the fact that children can produce increasingly inserted sentences in their utterances. Moreover, the problem with these theories is that they still offer no clarification of childrens ability to discover the relationships between language units. In contrast to this, Chomskys theory is considered one of the famous theories in the language acquisition domain. It has indeed, affected the entire literature language acquisition, because of the controversy surrounding it. Yet this theory too attracts a number of criticisms. In this section, we focus on four critical points made against this theory. A major criticism concerns the universal grammar hypothesis (UG) which has been discussed above. Although (UG) aroused widespread interest in language acquisition debates, it is thought, that it is based solely on abstract thinking and lacks empirical support. As Kadarisman (2007a) points out, the concept of universal grammar must be without meaning unless it has empirical evidence. But, without adequate explanations, it seems to be more a slogan than a scientific effort. Moreover, due to its abstraction, (UG) neglects the local importance of language used in the cultural context (Becker: 1995). Second, Chomskys theory is criticised for relying on logical arguments only. As Palmer (2000) indicates, Chomskys nativist claims remain are still the same as they have been fir the past two decades. Because his claims are based on logical arguments instead of, direct evidences or reasonable interpretations, his argum ents have no external support. Tomasello seems, agree with Palmer in this criticism because he states that Chomsky in his account relies strongly on logical arguments, not using the scientific study of human behaviour and cognition (Tomasello: 1995). Third, it is criticised because it can not be tested. This creates some contention around Chomskys account. The reason is that his theory has no clear cut procedures which could be examined. To put it more simple, Chomsky considered theory-construction in linguistics as similar to theory- construction in the physical sciences, particular, physics. Yet, there is a deference between these two domains, because, the mathematical model in physics depends on physical phenomena and is testable, whereas, Chomskys model relies on subjective judgments made by individual native speakers who may disagree with each other. Consequently, it can not be tested (Moor and Carling: 1987). Fourth, Chomskys theory is criticised in terms of its ideas, if considered as philosophical ideas, for instance the adoption of such innatist ideas as, the universal grammar (UG) hypothesis which is based on the hypothesis of an innate language faculty. Subsequently, many linguists (e.g. Hegde, 1980; Moore and Claring, 1987) have strongly criticised these ideas. For example, Hegde asserts that the concept of a nativist theory is merely part of an ancient philosophical idea. Furthermore, Moore and carling believe that Chomskian linguistics are linked by these ideas to philosophy, in particular, epistemology, the part of philosophy concerned with knowledge theories. Conclusion: The domain of language acquisition possesses a varied collection of theories. Their main concern is to discover the way in which people, in particular children, can acquire language. The accounts given by Chomsky and Tomasello can be critically contrasted, as seen above. They obviously stand on two opposite sides. In Chomskys theory, children are born with an innate ability by which they acquire their language, whereas, in Tomasellos theory, language is acquired through language use and not by biologically innate ability. Furthermore, the innate abilities which children have are not specific to language. However, the main aspects which have been contrasted in this paper comprised: first, the poverty of stimulus argument, in which, according to Chomsky, the input is not sufficient to acquire language, while, from Tomasellos perspective there is no poverty of stimulus; second, Language to Chomsky is creative, because it is free from the control of stimulus while in Tomasellos view lang uage results from the attempt of humans to create categories in language; third, modularity, Chomskys assertion that the mind is separated into sub-parts, whereas Tomasello believes, that general principles control the mind; and fourth, Language- specific versus domain- general learning mechanisms; either there are universals specific to language, as in (UG) hypothesis of Chomsky or, as Tomasello states universals is not specific to language but apply to all human communication and cognition. Hence, we can conclude that Chomskys account strongly relies on the hypothesis of universal grammar (UG) to support his view on the poverty of stimulus argument, creativity of language, modularity and the language- specific domain. It should be noted that the universal grammar hypothesis (UG) brought a great deal of debate among scholars of language acquisition, even though one of its limitations is that it has no empirical evidence to support it. Tomasellos account, conversely, depends on general skills in language acquisition, such as, joint attention, intention reading and pattern finding skills. Yet he did not provide adequate explanation to convince us that these are sufficient for language acquisition.

Nazi Olympics :: essays research papers

The Nazi Olympics   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Theme:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many events of The Nazi Olympics surround this sporting festival to make it one of the controversial events in sport history. Not only does Mandell cover the 1936 Olympic Games themselves but he gives insight to the history of the modern games, participation by the United States, the role of the games in the Nazi propaganda efforts and portrays heroes and key figures. Mandell wrote about the intersection of sport and politics and how world leaders set the agenda, not the athletes. The Nazi’s used the 1936 Olympic Games as a way to reinforce their political and racial goals. Although they were founded as part of a vision of world peace, the 1936 games became a stage for political disputes.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Nazi Olympics takes an in depth look at the efforts the Germans made to show the rest of the world that they had again become a powerful nation under the leader of Adolf Hitler. The events that followed the games in Germany, mainly the Holocaust and World War II overshadowed the Berlin games. However, it is very important to note that a world gathering like the Olympics took place in a country that was in the process of eliminating an entire race of people. The games were a huge success in regards to the Nazi regime, they were able to fool the world and prove to Germany that they were a peaceful and stable nation.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Capsule:  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1931, the International Olympic Committee awarded the 1936 Summer Olympics to Berlin. The choice signaled Germany’s return to the world community after its isolation in the aftermath of defeat in World War I. Two years later, Adolf Hitler became chancellor of Germany and quickly turned the nation’s fragile democracy into a one-party dictatorship that persecuted Jews, Gypsies, and all political opponents. The Nazis’ claimed to control all aspects of German life which also extended to sports. In August 1936, the Nazi regime tried to camouflage its violent racist policies while the country hosted the Summer Olympics. Most anti-Jewish signs were temporarily removed and newspapers toned down their harsh rhetoric. Movements towards the boycott of the Nazi Olympics surfaced in the United States, Great Britain, France, Sweden, Czechoslovakia, and the Netherlands. Debate over participation in the 1936 Olympics was more in tense throughout the United States, which traditionally sent one of the largest teams to the Games.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Responding to the persecution of Jewish athletes in 1933, Avery Brundage, president of the American Olympic Committee initially considered moving the Games from Germany but he was blind and was determined to accept the invitation to Berlin.

Emily Dickinson Essays -- essays research papers

Emily Dickinson   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Emily Elizabeth Dickinson, was born on December 10, 1830 in the small town of Amherst, Massachusetts. Emily was born into a wealthy and well-known family. Living with her father, mother, sister, and brother, Emily went through emotional problems as a child. Her father, Edward Dickinson, was a lawyer, treasurer of Amherst College, and a member of Congress. He was an orthodox Calvinist and he raised his family to be very religious (www.online-literature.com/dickinson). On May 6, 1828, Edward married Emily Norcross (Ferlazzo 11). Emily Norcross was a housewife and she also lived very religiously. She was very depressed for most of her life, which caused distance between her and the rest of her family. The distance with her mother actually caused Emily Dickinson to write that she â€Å"never had a mother† (www.kirjasto.sci.fi/emilydic.htm). On April 16th, 1829 Emily’s brother William Austin was born. Emily and her brother constantly competed with one ano ther because of the fact that they were both poets.. Emily Dickinson’s younger sister, Lavinia Norcross Dickinson, was born on February 28, 1833. Lavinia took the liberty of publishing Emily’s poetry after she passed away. Emily attended school at Amherst Academy and Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (Ferlazzo 11).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  1850 was the year that Emily first got her start in poetry writing. Her first poem, â€Å"Sic Transit Gloria Mundi,† was published in the Springfield Republican (Knapp 14). At the end of the Civil War, Emily Dickinson reduced the people she kept in contact with to only those she knew through Amherst. She dressed in nothing but white clothing and became a recluse. It is believed that Emily may have had an affair with Reverend Charles Wadsworth or Samuel Bowels (www.online-literature.com/dickinson/). While Emily was in seclusion, there were many Dickinson family battles being fought (www.kirjasto.sci.fi/emilydic.htm). Emily suffered great emotional troubles during 1861 and it is not known whether she ever fully recovered. Emily contracted Bright’s disease at the age of 54. She died on May 15, 1886. Her poems were published by her sister, Lavinia, and her niece, Martha Dickinson Bianchi (www.kirjasto.sci.fi/emilydic.htm).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The central themes of Emily’s poetry were death, love, faith, power, nature, domesticity,... ...ferent second stanza with seemingly secular views (Ferlazzo 39). In â€Å"This is My Letter to the World,† Dickinson shows her true seclusion from the world by observations and her disappointed love affairs. There were many indications within the poem that would suggest of her despair after her lovers and friends stopped writing, her only means of communication with the outside world (Ferlazzo 125). â€Å"Because I Could Not Stop for Death† and â€Å"I Felt a Funeral in My Brain† show her opposing views of death based upon her parents’ deaths, her father’s peacefully, and her mother’s sudden and harsh. Her religious standpoint lies in â€Å"Because I Could Not Stop for Death,† having the suitor symbolize God (Knapp 92). â€Å"There’s a Certain Slant of Light† exhibits similar views using strongly opposing words to show her contradiction of her views (Ferlazzo 116). â€Å"I Started Early - Took my Dog,† and â₠¬Å"A bird came down the Walk† show how her observations during her isolation gave her two contrasting views of nature and how her childhood and a possible rape affected her writing (Knapp 70-73). In conclusion, Emily Dickinson was a notorious poetess whose deep and heartfelt poetry will forever be remembered.

Knights and Thier Role In Medieval Society Essay -- European History

Knights and their role in medieval society. Knights were an integral part of medieval society. They originally began with primitive warriors such as the Mongols who fought on horseback for added speed and power, but quickly advanced to chivalrous gentleman such as the Normans. Much has been written about medieval knights with the most famous being a series of legends about King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table. Arthur and his knights were the ultimate example of what a perfect knight should have been. They were brave and skilful in battle, but merciful to their enemies once vanquished. They were courteous to ladies, and never ate or drank to excess. Knights associated in groups which they called orders. They vowed loyalty to the king they fought under and formed military org...

Impact of Cultural Differences, Internal and Environmental Factors at Airbus Essay

Employees are affected by a number of internal and external forces that when combined produce given behaviours and attitudes. In this paper, I will consider the key factors affecting individual and groups’ behaviour and their corresponding relationship to the personal and organisational performance. The scenario, Airbus’ manufacturing plant in Toulouse, is dominated by tensions amongst groups of workers with different cultural background. The impact of those cultural challenges, the pressures of delivering the A380s in time and the demands from the external environment will be some of the factors that will be considered in the analysis below. In order to understand the multiple forces and the organisational change processes undertaken by Airbus, two influential frameworks for change have been examined in this paper. The model introduced by Burke and Litwin (2002), and the approach presented by Kotter (1995), based upon the authors’ research into corporate change. 1. Individual factors Attitudes and personal behavioural codes consist of an organisation of feelings, thoughts and cognitions in a defined situation. Airbus’ employees appear not to be motivated to fulfil the group’s objectives as â€Å"there are too many tensions and too much suspicion† (Hollinger & Wiesmann, 2008), as reported by an official of the French union. As work motivation and job satisfaction are closely linked with the overall performance of workers, it is important to identify factors leading to job dissatisfaction at Airbus. The arrival of two thousand electricians to resolve wiring problem has impacted negatively on the Toulouse plant resulting in overcrowding, sudden change in industrial processes and dispositions against other individuals with a number of differences. The temperament and individual emotions are difficult to understand for people with diverse cultural upbringing. There are also differences in pay which are perceived as unequal an d negative, particularly for those employees not on secondment. In summary, individuals are often resistant to change which involve loss and uncertainty. One of the most common reasons for human resistance is the focus on their own best interests instead of the organisation’s (Kotter & Schlesinger, 1979). 2. Work group factors Although team diversity can potentially create a positive organisational synergy, the same can also create unique challenges resulting from social integration, tension, and conflict (Jehn, Northcraft & Neale, 1999). In the case of Airbus, it appears there are two leaders from different groups and cultures bringing different attitudes and dispositions to the groups, giving birth to nationalistic tensions between French and German employees. Management rivalries become a detrimental model for working groups (Drucker, 1986). Team engagement and social integration are then increasingly difficult as the majority of Germans are temporary employees coming from outside the company. Furthermore, the organisational culture of Airbus is affected by the lack of trust and transparency from management. In this situation, fear and suspicion emerge and French groups start to perceive the growing influence of German managers as unfair and unequal. All these factors create frustr ations amongst the teams and individuals thus producing uncertainty which affects the plant performance and the company’s ability to meet delivery schedules. 3. Organisational factors The organisational structure and culture as well as its policies and systems, together with the set goals influence employee and team behaviours. With this in mind, it is important to consider that Airbus and its parent company EADS were merged in the name of European unity and intended to be more competitive in the aerospace industry. With the internal pressures of company restructuring consisting of the A380 delivery targets and current production delays, Airbus workers become dominated by uncertainties and tension between different working groups. As Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) highlighted in their study, human resistance often emerges during organisational change efforts. Power 8, Airbus’ restructuring programme which consisted of undertaking a number of changes including job cuts, factory sales, new areas for components sourcing and leadership turnover, produces social tensions and management rivalries inside the organisation. 4. External environment An analysis of the national and global context of Airbus is crucial to understanding the influence of external forces producing both opportunities and threats to the organisation. Amongst those factors, pressures from politics, unions and public opinion are dominant forces in the case of Airbus. Competition in the global market, mainly between Airbus and Boeing, is also intense. Each company is under pressure and suffering from severe delays in delivery targets. State shareholders naturally makes the company subject to political interests and government rules and regulations affect Airbus’ operations management and its decision making process. Questions are raised about the compatibility of the company’s economic goals and its commitment to more political and social objectives. The leadership team need to engage and negotiate with trade unions, political parties and public movements to ensure success in the company’s outcomes. Thus pressur e from different groups makes it problematic for Airbus to align the internal organisation with the external forces. 5. Change dynamics Burke and Litwin (1992) present a causal model that helps to define and establish a cause-and-effect relationship between a number of organizational elements which are key to organizational change. The linkage between these is the key to effective change. They identify the external environment as the dominant factor driving change in organisations which affects their mission, culture, leadership and strategy. The company’s structure, systems, management practices, and climate are in turn linked to those dimensions and impact the overall performance. In the case of Airbus, the merger between Airbus and EADS and the strong competition of Boeing in the global aerospace market are the most dominant external forces. Those trigger a series of further changes in the company, which together, affects the motivation level of employees and work groups. 6. Change management issues Kotter (1995) in his corporate change analysis provides a number of lessons learnt which help understand the complex issues outlined in the Airbus case study. One of the issues in Airbus’ strategy is the lack of cooperation from individuals and teams. Morale and motivation are important factors to control and influence, especially in the first phase of the transformational process. Additionally, the role of leadership in terms of establishing a vision, communicating it and being the example of the new behaviours is also crucial. Airbus’ past rivalry between the former French and German management sides have been detrimental for the change effort. As Drucker (1986) points out â€Å"managers’ inability to change their attitudes and behaviour as rapidly as their organizations require† (Drucker, 1986) is a barrier for organisational growth. It is important to consider that changes take a long time to naturalise into the company cult ure. The benefit of Airbus’ restructuring programme, Power 8, cannot be judged before its time. The change in habits and rules destabilise people and the company’s exposure to public opinion and political interest increases the process of change in its complexity. Conclusion Today’s workforce is becoming more diverse in terms of age, gender and ethnicity. Managers are duty bound to develop skills to influence the relationship between team diversity and team outcomes by analysing the current situation and possible issues to be avoided. Changes are generally needed; in the instance of Airbus, they are implementing a large scale change affecting the organisational leadership, culture, structure and operations. Consequently, people affected by change experience some level of discomfort but leaders can increase their level of success by selecting the right strategy and approach to use with workgroups and individuals. Effective change management strategy should be consistent with the company’s management behaviour and the overall company’s culture, ensuring alignment of people internally and externally in the public environment. The change process in every organisation requires a length of time and readiness for individual chang e which proceed through stages which should not be overlooked for a successful outcome.

Hymer International Operations Of National Firms Economics Essay

This study has discussed different theoretical model of FDI that takes topographic point. These theories briefly explicate why houses go to problem when set uping or geting abroad. Theories that use on this study are Hymer ‘s parts, merchandise life-cycle theory, caves theory, internalization theory, the eclectic paradigm, strategic motives of foreign direct investing and investing way development ( IDP ) theory. This study besides evaluates Honda automotive as an illustration on how they survive and compete in the competitory international markets nowadays with utilizing FDI theoretical accounts, statistics and theories. Based on these analyses, I feel that FDI takes an of import function to both foreign and host states and besides impact steadfast behavior or effects on host economic systems.IntroductionThis study will discourse Foreign Direct Investment theories and measure the FDI of a taking participant industry that chosen, Toyota, Japan. Foreign direct investing ( FDI ) is the name given to treat where a house from a state provides capital to an bing or newly-created house in another state ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) . For illustration, a foreign house may make up one's mind to set-up production in the UK and by so making will prosecuting in the procedure known as FDI. Firms turn uping production in more than one state are frequently referred to as transnational endeavors ( MNEs ) . Tormenting ( 1981 ) notes there are two chief jobs with sing FDI. First, FDI is more than merely the transportation of capital, since merely as significantly it involves the transportation of engineering, direction and organisational accomplishments. Second, the resources are transferred within the house instead than between two independent parties in the market topographic point, as is the instance with capital ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) . These factors give FDI own a alone cardinal theories and frequently cited as Hymer ( 1960 ) international operations of national houses ; Vernon à ¢â‚¬Ëœs ( 1966 ) merchandise life-cycle theory ; Cave ‘s ( 1971 ) horizontal and perpendicular theories ; Buckley and Casson ( 1976 ) Internalization theory ; Dunning ( 1977 ) eclectic theory ; Graham ( 1978 ) strategic behaviour of houses and John Dunning ( 1981 ) investing development way ( IDP ) theory. This study will get down by analyzing the Hymer ( 1960 ) theory. ( Keywords: Foreign Direct Investment, FDI, theory, Japan FDI, Honda )Literature Review1.1 Hymer ( 1960 ) international operations of national housesHymer ‘s ( 1960 ) , who saw defects in the prevailing position that direct investings and portfolio were synonymous with one another. Hymer noted that direct investing was chiefly performed by houses in fabrication, whereas there was a predomination of fiscal administrations involved in portfolio investing ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) . Hymer was besides explained why direct investings across assorted states ( Kogut, 1998 # 2 ) . Hymer ( 1960 ) expressed his dissatisfaction with the theory of indirect ( or portfolio ) capital transportations to explicate the foreign value-added activities of houses ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . In peculiar, he identified three grounds for his discontent. The first was that one time uncertainness and hazard, the cost of geting information and volatile exchange rates and doing minutess were incorporated into classi cal portfolio theory, many anticipations, for illustration, with regard to the cross-border motions of money capital in response to involvement rate alterations, became nullified. This was because such market imperfectnesss modified the behavioral parametric quantities impacting public presentation of houses and the behavior and, in peculiar, scheme in serving foreign markets ( Tormenting, 2008 # 3 ) . Second, Hymer stated that FDI involved the transportation of a bundle of resource ( i.e engineering, entrepreneurship, direction accomplishments, and so on ) , and non merely finance capital which portfolio theories such as Iversen ( 1935 ) had sought to explicate. The 3rd and possibly most cardinal feature of FDI was that it involved no alteration in the ownership of resources or rights transferred, whereas indirect investing, which was transacted through the market, did ask such a alteration. In effects, the organizational mode of both the dealing of the resources, for illustration, intermediate merchandises, and the value-added activities linked by these minutess was different. Furthermore, Hymer ‘s theory of FDI draws its influence from Bain ‘s ( 1956 ) barriers to entry theoretical account of industrial economic sciences ( Teece, 1985 ) . Hymer Begins by observing that there are barriers to entry for a house desiring to set-up production abroad. These are in the signifier of uncertainness, hazard, and host-country patriotism ( Kogut, 1998 # 2 ) . Uncertainty gives rise to costs in get the better ofing informational disadvantages associated with strangeness with local imposts. Each state has its ain linguistic communications, legal system, economic system and authorities, which place houses from exterior of the state at a disadvantage compared to houses that are of course resident to the state. The 2nd barrier is chauvinistic favoritism by host states, which may happen by the authorities with a protectionist docket, or by consumers of the host st ate who prefer to buy goods from ain national houses for grounds of loyal or trueness inclinations. The concluding barrier manifests itself as an exchange rate hazard ( Kogut, 1998 # 2 ) . As the house has to pay a dividend to its stockholders in the place state it has to repatriate the net incomes back to its ain currency. Given these barriers to international productions, why do houses prosecute in foreign direct investing? Harmonizing to Hymer there are two grounds, whether of which could use, and both of which are expected to increase its net incomes ( Kogut, 1998 # 2 ) . First, the house removes competition from within the industry, by taking-over or by unifying with houses in other states. Second, the house has advantages over other houses runing in a foreign state. Examples of the latter are the ability of the house to get factors of production at a lower cost, the usage of better distributional installations, the ownership of cognition non known to its challengers or a differentiated merchandise that is now known in the other state. Both grounds stress the importance of ‘market imperfectnesss ‘ ( Dunning and Rugman, 1985 ) , and underlying these the investor has direct control of the investing. Overall, these grounds are non sufficient for a house to prosecute in direct foreign investing, as what is necessary is that it must come in the foreign market in order to to the full allow the net incomes, for illustration, a house could licence its merchandise to a house in the foreign state, so that it need non straight put in the market. However, there are jobs with licencing the merchandise. These include the failure to make an understanding with the licensing house over the degrees of end product or monetary values, or the costs involved in the monitoring an understanding made between the houses.1.2 Product Life-Cycle TheoryVernon ( 1966 ) , argued that â€Å" the determination to turn up production is non made by standard factor-cost or labour-cost analysis, but by a more complicated procedure † ( Kogut, 1998 # 2, p.29 ) . The merchandise rhythm theoretical account was introduced in the 1960s to explicate market-seeking production by houses of a peculiar ownership or na tionality ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . On the other manus, the merchandise rhythm was the first dynamic reading of the determiners of, and relationship between, international trade and foreign production ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . It besides introduced some fresh hypotheses sing demand stimulations, engineering leads and slowdowns, and information and communicating costs, which have later proved utile tools in the survey of foreign production and exchange ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . Harmonizing to Vernon, a merchandise has a life rhythm that has three chief phases. These phases are of import as they have deductions for the international location of a merchandise as follows. Phase One: Merchandise development procedure. In other words, the nature of the merchandise that the house is doing is non standardised ( Kogut, 1998 # 2 ) . Phase Two: Maturing merchandise. This means that the demand for the merchandise to be situated near to its market diminutions, which allows for economic systems of graduated table. These impact on the locational determination of the house, particularly as the demand for the merchandise is likely to turn in other states, and the house will hold to make up one's mind whether it is deserving puting up production abroad. Furthermore, this could even intend that the place state experiences exports back to it from the foreign works. Phase Three: Standardized merchandise. This is an extension to the maturating merchandise phase, where the standardization of the merchandise has reached its ‘zenith ‘ , and a concluding model of the merchandise has been found ( Kogut, 1998 # 2 ) .1.3 Caves TheoryCaves ( 1971 ) , expanded upon Hymer ‘s theory of direct investing, and placed it steadfastly in the context of industrial administration theory ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) . The importance of Caves work is that this theory will associate Hymer ‘s theory of international production to the so current theories of industrial administration on horizontal and perpendicular integrating. Caves identify between houses that engage in horizontal FDI and those that undertake perpendicular FDI ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . Horizontal FDI takes topographic point when a house enters into its ain merchandise market within a foreign state, whereas perpendicular FDI happens when a house enters into the merchandise market at a diffe rent phase of production ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) .1.4 Internalisation TheoryCoase ( 1937 ) , examines the function that dealing costs play in the formation of administrations known as internalization theory ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) . In brief, Coase was concerned with why houses exist and why non all minutess in a n economic system occur in the market. Coase besides answered this in footings of the minutess costs involved in utilizing the market, where this is the cost of seeking and finding the market monetary value, or, one time the monetary value is found, the cost of dialogue, subscribing and enforcement of contracts between the parties involved in the dealing. The procedure of internalization is developed to explicate international production and FDI, and one of the taking advocates is Buckley and Casson ( 1976 ) . They present the MNE as basically an extension of the multi-plant house ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . Bucley and Casson note that the operations of house, particularly big houses, take the signifier non merely of bring forthing services and goods, but activities such as selling, preparation, development and research, direction techniques and engagement with fiscal markets. These activities are mutualist and are connected by ‘intermediate merchandises ‘ , taking the signifier of either cognition or stuff merchandises, and expertness. A cardinal intermediate merchandise in the internalization theory of FDI is knowledge. One ground is that cognition takes a considerable period of clip to bring forth, for illustration through development and research, but is extremely hazardous, so that hereafters markets do non be. Sellers of markets may be unwilling to unwrap information, which has unsure value to the purchaser, doing market fail. Further, Sellerss and purchasers of cognition can frequently keep a grade of market power, which leads to a ‘bilateral concentration of power ‘ ( Williamson, 1979 ) , and unsure results ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . These jobs indicate the terrible troubles in licensing and undertaking where information is important. In respects to internationalization, the public good belongings of cognition agencies it is easy transmitted within the house, irrespective of whether it is inside or across national boundaries. This creates internal markets across national boundaries, and as Buckley and Casson province, as houses search for and work cognition to their maximal potency they do so in legion locations, with this taking topographic point on an international graduated table, taking to a â€Å" web of workss on a global footing † ( Jones, 2006 # 1, p.45 ) . The internalization theories of FDI played an of import function in progressing and developing the theory of FDI in the 1970s and have remained popular since that clip ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) .1.5 The Eclectic Paradigm( Please refer to postpone 2.1 and 2.2 in reading this subdivision ) Reflecting upon the history of the theory of FDI, Dunning ( 1977 ) noted that it was really much couched in footings of either the structural market failure hypothesis of Hymer and Caves or the internalization attack of Buckley and Casson ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . Tormenting provided an eclectic response to these by conveying the viing theories together to organize a individual theory, or paradigm as it is more frequently referred. The basic premiss of Dunning ‘s paradigm is that it links together Hymer ‘s ownership advantages with the internalization school, and at the same clip adds a locational dimension to the theory, which at the clip had non been to the full explored ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) . Further, Dunning does pull off to present some new considerations, such as the impact that different state and industry features have on each of the ownership, locational and internalization advantages of FD ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) . The eclectic paradigm of FDI provinces that a house will straight put in a foreign state merely if it fulfils three conditions. First, the house must possess an ownership-specific plus, which gives it an advantage over other houses and which are sole to the house. Second, it must internalize these assets within the house instead than through catching or licensing. Third, there must be an advantage in setting-up production in a peculiar foreign state instead than trusting on exports ( Blomstrom, 2000 # 8 ) . Different types of ownership ( O ) , locational ( L ) and internalization ( I ) factors are given in Table 1 ( jointly known as OLI ) ( Jones, 2006 # 1 ) . Internalization advantages are the ways that a house maximises the additions from their ownership advantages to avoid or get the better of market imperfectnesss ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . Internalisation-specific advantages consequences in the procedure of production going internal to the house. Reasons for internalization include the turning away of dealing costs, the protection of the good, market and finance, turning away of duties and the ability to capture economic systems of graduated table from production ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . Furthermore, non all of the OLI conditions for FDI will be equally dispersed across states, and hence each status will be determined by the factors that are specific to single states ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . Linkss between the OLI advantages and the country-specific features are summarised in Table 2. For illustration, the ownership-specific advantage of house size is likely to be influenced by market size in the house ‘s place state ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . This is because the larger the market is, the more likely will a house be able to derive ownership-specific advantages in the signifier of economic systems of graduated table. In footings of location-specific factors, labor costs will change across developed and developing states, while conveyance costs are determined by the distance between the host and place states. Finally, country-specific factors are likely to impact the grade to which houses internalise their advantages.1.6 Strategic Motivations of Foreign Direct Invest mentDespite the progresss made by the eclectic attack to FDI, the theory has been criticised for disregarding another facet of FDI theory. Knickerbocker ( 1973 ) , and so advanced by Graham ( 1978, 1998 ) . The distinguished characteristic of the strategic attack to FDI is that is believes that an initial influx of FDI into a state will bring forth a reaction signifier the local manufacturers in that state, so that FDI is a dynamic procedure. The procedure from the domestic manufacturers can either be aggressive or defensive in nature. An aggressive response would be a monetary value war or entry into the foreign house ‘s place market while a defensive response would be an acquisition or amalgamation of other domestic manufacturers to reenforce market power ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) .1.7 Investment Development Path TheoryJohn Dunning ‘s ‘investment development way ( IDP ) ‘ theory ( 1981 ) and its latest version ( Tormenting an Narula 1994 ) are implicitly built on the impression that the planetary economic system is needfully hierarchal in footings of the assorted phases of economic development in which its diverse component states are situated. The IDP basically traces out the net cross-border flows of industrial cognition, the flows that are internalised in foreign direct investing ( FDI ) and that restructure and upgrade the planetary economic system, although there is besides the non-equity type of cognition transportation such as licensing, turn-key operations, and the similar. In this manner, the IDP can therefore be position as a cross-border larning curve exhibited by a state that successfully move up the phases of development by geting industrial cognition from its more advanced ‘neighbours ‘ . A move from the ‘U-shaped ‘ ( i.e negative NOI ) part to the ‘wiggle ‘ subdivision of the IDP indicates an ‘equilibration in cognition airing ‘ ( Dunning, 1996 # 5, p.143 ) and that is, a narr owing of the industrial engineering spread between the advanced and the catching-up states. Therefore, IDP curve conceptualised by Dunning is an idealized form based on free-market exchanged of cognition among states ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) .Japan Automotive Industry2.1 Components-intensive assembly-based fabrication and FDI( first, trade-conflict-skirting, but subsequently rationalizing type )Cars and auto-parts had long been targeted by the Nipponese authorities as one of the most promising industries in which both higher technological advancement and productiveness were possible and whose merchandises were extremely income elastic. In add-on to cars, another components-intensive, assembly-based industry that successfully emerged in Japan in the 1970s was consumer electronics ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . Both cars and consumer electronics came to capitalize really adroitly on Japan ‘s double industrial construction in which legion little and moderate-sized endeavor coexisted alongs ide a limited figure of large-scale houses ; the former specialised at the comparatively labor-intensive terminal, while the latter operated at the comparatively capital-intensive, scale-based terminal of vertically incorporate fabrication ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . Furthermore, it was besides in Japan ‘s car industry ( at Toyota Motor Co. , to be exact ) that a new fabrication paradigm, ‘lean ‘ or ‘flexible ‘ production, originated as a superior option to ‘Fordist ‘ mass production ( Womack, Jones and Roos, 1990 ) . This technological advancement came to be reflected in lifting engineering exports in the conveyance equipment ( largely, car ) industry. But the really success of constructing up the efficient, large-scale ( hence exploitative of scale/scope economic systems ) hierarchies of assembly operations in extremely differentiated cars and electronics goods, along with increased R & A ; D and technological accretion ( which is reflected in increasing engineering exports ) , resulted in Japan ‘s export thrust and spread outing trade excess. These state of affairss in bend rapidly led to merchandise issues and the crisp grasp of the hankering ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . To besiege protectionism, Nipponese manufacturers of cars and electronics goods began to replace their exports with local assembly operations in the Western markets, chiefly in North America and Europe. Meanwhile, they besides started to bring forth reasonably standardised ( Internet Explorer. Relatively low value added ) parts and constituents, or those that can be cost-effectively produced, locally, both in low-wage developing states, particularly in Asia, and in high-wage Western countries- in the latter, with the installing of labour-cost-reducing and labour-quality-augmenting mechanization equipment largely shipped from Japan. Therefore, a web of Nipponese abroad ventures began to ‘straddle ‘ the advanced host states and the developing host states at the same clip ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . Recently, these assembly-based FDIs are traveling beyond the trade-conflict-skirting stage to make a new stage of rationalised cross-border production and selling. More and more constituents are produced at supplied place to the abroad fabrication outstations. Besides, low-end merchandises ( theoretical accounts ) are assigned to production and selling in the developing host states, particularly in Asia ; some are imported back into Japan. Therefore, we can spot a more refined or more aggressively delineated and specialised signifier of trade within an industry ( i.e intra industry ) or more suitably within a house ( i.e intra- house trade ) and within a production procedure ( i.e inter-process trade ) , a new signifier of trade made possible by rationalisation-seeking type of FDI ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) .2.2 Toyota( Please refer to appendix 1 & A ; 2 in reading this subdivision ) The Nipponese market is the most amalgamate of all three markets. Toyota, is a multinational Nipponese international auto maker where headquartered in Aichi, Japan ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . Harmonizing to appendix 1, in 2011, Toyota was the 5th biggest multinational companies with foreign sale as 60.8 per centum of entire. Besides, it has 38 % of its 326,000 workers abroad ( Economist, 2012 # 7 ) . In 2009, Toyota entirely has 36.88 per centum of the rider auto market, 18.29 per centum of the truck market and 79.72 per centum of the coach market ( M.Rugman, 2012 # 6 ) . Excluding Japan, Toyota is the market leader in two of the six largest states in Asia Pacific which are Malaysia and Thailand ( M.Rugman, 2012 # 6 ) . Furthermore, in 2009, two regional markets accounted for 78 per centum of Toyota ‘s gross Asia ( with Japan at 48.3 per centum of grosss ) and North America ( at 29.70 per centum of grosss ) ; Europe was merely at 14.1 per centum of grosss and remainder of the unive rse 7.9 per centum, and therefore, it is a bi-region-focused company. Harmonizing to appendix 2, In term of units sold, the geographic distribution is similar where Asia and Oceania history for 14 per centum, North America 32 per centum and Europe 14 per centum. Therefore, in footings of gross and units sold, Toyota is a bi-regional company ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . Over 10 old ages, Toyota ‘s intra-regional per centum of gross revenues has decreased from 57.1 per centum to 46.2 per centum. One major ground for this is the Nipponese market itself, where gross revenues decreased for 48.4 per centum of entire grosss in 1993 to 38.3 per centum in 2002. As comparing, North American, European, and non-triad gross revenues have steadily increased in importance. Toyota manufactures locally over two tierces of the auto sells in United States. Local reactivity is of import for Toyota. Toyota introduced its luxury theoretical accounts to suit the wealthier and aging North American babe boomers in the 1990s. Today, the company is presenting autos to aim the immature American client, the demographic reverberation of the babe boomers. Since 60 per centum of US auto purchasers remain loyal to the trade name of first auto, it is therefore imperative to serve this immature market ( M.Rugman, 2012 # 6 ) . Furthermore, American consumers, have been antiphonal to the company ‘s repute for lower monetary value and quality at which Toyota ‘s autos are sold ( M.Rugman, 2012 # 6 ) . Besides, the resale value is besides higher for Toyota autos. One major advantage for Toyota is that is has some of the best fabrication installations in the universe, and it combined this with first-class relationships with its providers. Until late, Toyota was one of the most efficient companies at outsourcing production to providers with whom it enjoys amicable long-run, sometimes keiretsu-style, relationship ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . If the car industry is to go more like the electronics industry, vehicle trade name proprietor ( VBOs ) , such as GM, and VW, will be the equivalent of original equipment makers ( OEMs ) in the electronics industry, such as Nokia, and will concentrate on designing, technology, and selling vehicles to be sold under their trade name while others take attention of fabrica tion ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . Toyota is likely farther along this outsourcing path than other triad car shapers. Overall, although Toyota has much intra-regional trade and FDI, this does non intend that trade or FDI between them has declined ( M.Rugman, 2012 # 6 ) . As discussed, all of them have invested big sums of money in each other. For illustration, in 2008, the EU state has $ 1,622.911 billion of FDI in the United States and $ 86.915 billion in Japan. The United States imports $ 377 billion from the EU and $ 143.4 billion from Japan. So they are closely linked in footings of both trade and FDI ( M.Rugman, 2012 # 6 ) .3. DecisionsOverall, this study has reviewed the theoretical literature on foreign direct investing and Honda automotive in the FDI international markets. Since Hymer, there have been efforts to turn to a figure of issues, such as why FDI occurs and where it locates. This study has besides take on board developments in Dunning ‘s eclectic paradigm of FDI, which non merely encompasses ownership and internalization advantages of transnational endeavor, but the function t hat location dramas in a house ‘s determination to put abroad. Since the clip of the eclectic paradigm, other theories have emerged that have stressed the importance of the function of scheme in FDI in the face of ‘globalisation ‘ and a corresponding growing in competition between houses. In this, the function of the traditional barriers to entry across states, such as the differences in the legal, economic environments and lingual, have become less of import, and FDI is now be viewed as competition between a few houses on an international phase ( Dunning, 1996 # 5 ) . Tormenting ‘s IDP paradigm provides a challenging model to analyze the Nipponese industry experience, because the instance of Japan seems so ‘deviant ‘ from the ‘norm ‘ set Forth in the macro-IDP form. The Asiatic NIEs and the new NIEs ( ASEAN-4 ) and now ‘new ‘ new NIEs ( China, Vietnam and India ) have moulded their developmental schemes along the line of M NE- facilitated development in order to ‘swing up ‘ . Indeed, Japan automotive seems to hold been a function theoretical account for other East and South East Asiatic states to fit in their thrust to economic modernization. In add-on, to the high degree of international concern conducted across the three, companies in the three are invariably looking for new thoughts from other parts that will do them more competitory. In the United States, for illustration, the caput of the Federal Reserve System has expressed the belief that US antimonopoly patterns are out of day of the month and that rivals should be allowed to get and unify with each other in order to protect themselves from universe competition ( Dunning, 2008 # 3 ) . This thought has long been popular in Japan where Keiretsus, or concern groups, which consist of a host of companies that are linked together through ownership and/or joint ventures, dominate the local environment and are able to utilize their combined connexions and wealth to rule universe markets.( 2000 words )Table 1The Three Conditions of the Eclectic Theory Ownership-specific advantages ( internal to endeavors of one nationality ) Size of house Technology and trade Markss Management and organizational systems Entree to save capacity Economies of joint supply Greater entree to markets and cognition International chances such as diversifying hazard Location-specific advantage ( finding the location of production ) Distribution of inputs and markets Cost of labor, conveyance and stuffs costs between states Government intercession and policies Commercial and legal substructure Language, civilization and imposts ( ie psychic distance ) Internalisation-specific advantages ( get the better ofing market imperfectnesss ) Decrease in hunt, dialogue and monitoring costs Avoidance of belongings right enforcement costs Engage in monetary value favoritism Protection of merchandise Avoidance of duties Beginning: Dunning ( 1981 )Table 2Features of Countries and OLI-specific Advantages Owbnership-specific advantages State features Size of houseLarge marketsBroad attitudes to amalgamationsTechnology and trade MarkssGovernment support of inventionSkilled work forceManagement and organizational systemsSupply of trained directors.Educational installationsMerchandise distinctionHigh income statesDegrees of advertisement and sellingLocation-specific advantagesState featuresCostss of labor and stuffsDeveloped or developing stateConveyance costs between statesDistance between statesGovernment intercession and policiesAttitudes of authorities to FDIEconomies of graduated tableSize of marketsPsychic distanceSimilarities of states ‘ linguistic communications and civilizations.Internalisation-specific advantagesState featuresSearching negociating monitoring costs.Greater degrees of instruction and larger markets make cognition type ownership-specific advantages more likely to happen.Avoid costs of implementing belongings rights. Protection of merchandises. Beginning: Dunning ( 1981 )Appendix 1Degree centigrades: UsersuserDesktop20120714_woc582_5.png